Argument from nonbelief, Appeal to emotion, Problem of evil

Hujja daga rashin imani: Hujja daga rashin imani hujja ce ta falsafa wacce ke tabbatar da rashin daidaituwa tsakanin kasancewar Allah da duniyar da mutane suka kasa gane shi. Ya yi daidai da huɗar gargajiya daga mugunta a cikin tabbatar da rashin daidaituwa tsakanin duniyar da ke akwai da kuma duniyar da za ta wanzu idan Allah yana da wasu buƙatu haɗe tare da ikon ganin su.
Peira don motsawa: Roko zuwa ga motsin rai ko kuma muhawara gamsassun maganganu karya ce ta yau da kullun wacce ta shafi magudin motsin mai karba don cin nasarar jayayya, musamman in babu hujja ta gaskiya. Irin wannan roko zuwa ga motsin rai wani nau'in jan aiki ne kuma ya ƙunshi yaudara da dama, wanda ya haɗa da roko ga sakamako, roko ga tsoro, roƙo ga fadanci, roƙo zuwa ga tausayi, roƙo ga izgili, roƙo don ƙeta, da kuma burin buri.
Matsalar mugunta: Matsalar mugunta ita ce tambayar ta yaya za a daidaita wanzuwar mugunta da wahala tare da Allah mai iko duka, mai cikakken iko, da kuma masani. Mafi kyawun gabatarwar matsalar an danganta ta ga masanin falsafar Girka Epicurus kuma mashahurin David Hume.
Tabbacin asalin kowa: Tabbacin asalin asalin halittu masu rai sun gano ne ta hanyar masana kimiyya masu bincike a fannoni daban-daban a cikin shekaru da yawa, wanda ke nuna cewa duk rayuwar duniya daga magabata daya ne. Wannan ya zama muhimmin sashi na shaidar da akidar juyin halitta ta dogara a kanta, ya nuna cewa juyin halitta yana faruwa, kuma ya kwatanta hanyoyin da suka haifar da halittu masu yawa a duniya. Yana tallafawa haɓakar juyin zamani - ka'idar kimiyya ta yanzu wacce ke bayanin yadda da dalilin da yasa rayuwa take canzawa akan lokaci. Masanan kimiyyar juyin halitta sun rubuta shaidar asalin zuriyarsu, ta hanyar komawa zuwa ga magabata na gaba daya, ta hanyar samar da tsinkaya mai gamsarwa, gwada jumla, da gina ka'idoji wadanda zasu bayyana da kuma bayyana musabbabinsa.
Hujja daga faɗuwa: Hujja daga rashin gaskiya ita ce rashin gaskiyar bincikar hujja da nuna cewa, tunda tana dauke da karya, to karshenta dole ya zama karya. Haka kuma an kira shaida wa dabaru, da shirme kawai shirme kawai, da fallacist ta shirme kawai, kuma bad dalilai Shaci.
Jawabin karya: Jigogin karya shine zato ba daidai ba wanda ya kafa tushen hujja ko sigar aiki. Tunda jigogin ba daidai bane, kammalawar da aka ɗauka na iya zama cikin kuskure. Koyaya, ingancin hankali na mahawara aiki ne na daidaiton cikin sa, ba ƙimar gaskiyar abubuwan da yake gabatarwa ba.
Apira don sakamako: Roko zuwa ga sakamako , wanda aka fi sani da argumentum ad consequentiam , hujja ce da ta ƙaddara wata magana ta zama gaskiya ko ƙarya dangane da ko jigogin yana haifar da kyawawan sakamako ko maras so. Wannan ya dogara ne da roko zuwa ga motsin rai kuma wani nau'i ne na rashin tsari, tunda abin da ake so game da sakamakon bai sanya batun gaskiya ba. Bugu da ƙari, a cikin rarraba sakamako a matsayin mai so ko wanda ba a so, irin waɗannan maganganun a bayyane sun ƙunshi ra'ayoyi na asali.
Muhawara game da yanayin duniya: Hujjar sararin samaniya , a tiyoloji na ɗabi'a, hujja ce wacce take iƙirarin cewa wanzuwar Allah ana iya bayyana shi daga hujjoji game da sababi, bayani, canji, motsi, yanayi, dogaro, ko ƙima game da sararin samaniya ko wasu jimillar abubuwa. A cosmological shawara kuma iya, wani lokacin za kira a matsayin wani misãli daga duniya causation, an shaida daga farko dalili, ko da causal shawara. Kowace lokacin aiki, akwai bambance-bambancen asali guda biyu na muhawara, kowane ɗayan yana da mahimmancin rarrabewa masu mahimmanci: a cikin (mahimmancin) , da kuma a cikin fieri (zama) .
Argumentum ad baculum: Argumentum ad baculum shine karyar da akayi lokacin da mutum yayi roko don tilasta kawo yarda da kammalawa. Mutum ya shiga cikin muhawarar talla lokacin da mutum ya jaddada mummunan sakamakon da ke tattare da rikon matsayin, ba tare da la'akari da ƙimar gaskiyar matsayin ba - musamman ma idan mai gabatar da hujjar da kansa ya haifar da waɗannan mummunan sakamakon. Lamari ne na musamman na roko ga sakamakon.
Hujja daga son rai: Hujjar daga 'yancin zabi, wanda kuma ake kira rikice-rikice na' yancin zabi ko akidar tauhidin , ya nuna cewa sanin kowa da 'yancin zabi bai dace ba kuma duk wani tunanin Allah wanda ya hada duka kadarorin abu ne mai wuyar fahimta. Duba rikice-rikice daban-daban game da da'awar sanin komai na Allah, musamman mahimmancin ra'ayi game da hango nesa. Wadannan muhawara suna da matukar damuwa da tasirin kaddara.
Hujja daga jahilci: Hujja daga jahilci , wanda aka fi sani da kira zuwa ga jahilci , ƙarya ce cikin dabaru mara tushe. Yana tabbatar da cewa zance na gaskiya ne domin har yanzu ba a tabbatar da karya ba ko kuma wani zance na karya ne domin har yanzu ba a tabbatar da gaskiya ba. Wannan yana wakiltar nau'in kwatancen karya ta yadda ya kebe yiwuwar cewa watakila an yi karancin bincike don tabbatar da cewa zancen gaskiya ne ko karya ne. Hakanan baya ba da damar yiwuwar cewa amsar ba za a iya sani ba, kawai ana iya sani a nan gaba, ko kuma ba cikakkiyar gaskiya ba ce ko ƙarya. A cikin muhawara, yin kira zuwa ga jahilci wani lokacin yunƙuri ne don sauya nauyin hujja. A cikin bincike, ƙananan gwaje-gwaje na ƙarƙashin batutuwan ƙarya da ƙwarewar ƙarya. Kalmar mai yiwuwa malamin falsafa John Locke ne ya kirkiro kalmar a ƙarshen karni na 17.
Hujja daga mafarki: Hujja daga ruɗani hujja ce game da kasancewar azanci-data. An gabatar da shi azaman zargi na zahirin gaskiya.
Hujja daga zane mara kyau: Hujjar daga mummunan zane , wanda kuma aka fi sani da muhawarar dysteleological , hujja ce a kan zaton kasancewar Allah mahalicci, bisa ga dalilin cewa duk wani allah mai iko da iko ko kuma alloli ba zai halicci kwayoyin halitta ba tare da tsinkayen suboptimal zane-zane da ke faruwa a cikin yanayi.
Takaddama ta waya: Muhawara ta teleological hujja ce game da wanzuwar Allah ko kuma, gabaɗaya, cewa rikitaccen aiki a cikin yanayin duniya wanda yayi kama da tsari shine shaidar mahalicci mai hankali.
Hujja daga ayoyin da basu dace ba: Hujjar daga ayoyin da basu dace ba hujja ce da ke da nufin nuna cewa mutum ba zai iya zabar wani addini a kan wani ba tunda ayoyin nasu basu dace da juna ba kuma duk wani addini biyu ba zai iya zama gaskiya ba.
Hujja daga rashin yarda: Hujja daga rashin yarda , wanda aka fi sani da jayayya daga rashin yarda da mutum ko kira zuwa ga hankali , karya ce a cikin rashin hankali. Yana tabbatar da cewa shawarar dole ne ta zama karya domin ta saba wa tsammanin mutum ko imaninsa, ko yana da wahalar tunani.
Hujja daga rashin ƙarfi: Hujjar daga inertia ko roko zuwa inertia mai ma'ana shirme kawai samu daga shawara cewa wani kuskure matsayi wannan tarihi a kiyaye domin da kansa sake, yawanci saboda yin wani canji da zai bukaci m na Laifi a cikin kuskure ko saboda gyara kuskure da zai bukaci m qoqarinsu da kuma albarkatu.
Takaddama ta waya: Muhawara ta teleological hujja ce game da wanzuwar Allah ko kuma, gabaɗaya, cewa rikitaccen aiki a cikin yanayin duniya wanda yayi kama da tsari shine shaidar mahalicci mai hankali.
Hujja daga jahilci: Hujja daga jahilci , wanda aka fi sani da kira zuwa ga jahilci , ƙarya ce cikin dabaru mara tushe. Yana tabbatar da cewa zance na gaskiya ne domin har yanzu ba a tabbatar da karya ba ko kuma wani zance na karya ne domin har yanzu ba a tabbatar da gaskiya ba. Wannan yana wakiltar nau'in kwatancen karya ta yadda ya kebe yiwuwar cewa watakila an yi karancin bincike don tabbatar da cewa zancen gaskiya ne ko karya ne. Hakanan baya ba da damar yiwuwar cewa amsar ba za a iya sani ba, kawai ana iya sani a nan gaba, ko kuma ba cikakkiyar gaskiya ba ce ko ƙarya. A cikin muhawara, yin kira zuwa ga jahilci wani lokacin yunƙuri ne don sauya nauyin hujja. A cikin bincike, ƙananan gwaje-gwaje na ƙarƙashin batutuwan ƙarya da ƙwarewar ƙarya. Kalmar mai yiwuwa malamin falsafa John Locke ne ya kirkiro kalmar a ƙarshen karni na 17.
Hujja daga soyayya: Hujjar daga soyayya hujja ce game da samuwar Allah.
Hujja daga ƙananan lamuran: Muhawara daga shari'o'in da suka rage daga baya wata hujja ce ta falsafa tsakanin ka'idar 'yancin dabbobi game da dabi'un dabbobin da ba mutane ba. Maganganun nata sun tabbatar da cewa idan jarirai mutane, da dattijai, da masu rauni, da nakasassu masu hankali suna da halin ɗabi'a kai tsaye, dabbobin da ba mutane ba dole ne su kasance suna da irin wannan matsayin, tunda babu wata sananniyar halayyar ɗabi'a da waɗancan mutane masu ƙananan keɓaɓɓu suke da dabbobi. rashin. "Matsayi na ɗabi'a" na iya nufin haƙƙin ba a kashe shi ko sanya shi shan wahala ba, ko kuma game da ƙa'idodin ɗabi'a da za a bi da su ta wata hanya.
Hujja daga mu'ujizai: Hujja daga mu'ujizai hujja ce game da samuwar Allah wanda ya dogara da imanin cewa al'amuran da suka halarta kuma aka bayyana su da mu'ujizai - watau kamar abubuwan da ba za su iya bayyana ta dokokin ƙasa ko na kimiyya ba - suna nuna sa hannun na allahntaka. Dubi Allah na Raguwa.
Hujja daga ɗabi'a: Hujja daga dabi'a hujja ce game da samuwar Allah. Hujjoji daga ɗabi'a sukan dogara ne akan ƙa'idodin ɗabi'a ko tsarin ɗabi'a. Hujjoji daga ka'idojin ɗabi'a suna lura da wani ɓangare na ɗabi'a kuma suna jayayya cewa Allah shine mafi kyawun ko kawai bayani game da wannan, suna mai cewa Allah dole ne ya wanzu. Hujjoji daga tsari na ɗabi'a sun dogara ne akan tabbatacciyar buƙatar ɗabi'ar ɗabi'a don wanzu a sararin samaniya. Suna da'awar cewa, don wannan tsari na ɗabi'a ya wanzu, dole ne Allah ya wanzu don tallafawa shi. Hujja daga ɗabi'a abin lura ne a cikin cewa mutum ba zai iya kimanta sahihancin bahasin ba tare da halartar kusan dukkanin mahimman batutuwan falsafa a cikin ka'idojin ladabi ba.
Muhawara game da yanayin duniya: Hujjar sararin samaniya , a tiyoloji na ɗabi'a, hujja ce wacce take iƙirarin cewa wanzuwar Allah ana iya bayyana shi daga hujjoji game da sababi, bayani, canji, motsi, yanayi, dogaro, ko ƙima game da sararin samaniya ko wasu jimillar abubuwa. A cosmological shawara kuma iya, wani lokacin za kira a matsayin wani misãli daga duniya causation, an shaida daga farko dalili, ko da causal shawara. Kowace lokacin aiki, akwai bambance-bambancen asali guda biyu na muhawara, kowane ɗayan yana da mahimmancin rarrabewa masu mahimmanci: a cikin (mahimmancin) , da kuma a cikin fieri (zama) .
Hujja daga rashin imani: Hujja daga rashin imani hujja ce ta falsafa wacce ke tabbatar da rashin daidaituwa tsakanin kasancewar Allah da duniyar da mutane suka kasa gane shi. Ya yi daidai da huɗar gargajiya daga mugunta a cikin tabbatar da rashin daidaituwa tsakanin duniyar da ke akwai da kuma duniyar da za ta wanzu idan Allah yana da wasu buƙatu haɗe tare da ikon ganin su.
Argumentum ad populum: A ka'idar mahawara, muhawara ce ta gardama wacce ta yanke hukunci cewa tilas ne ya zama gaskiya saboda mutane da yawa ko mutane da yawa sun gaskata shi, galibi a taƙaice a rufe cewa: "Idan da yawa sun yi imani da haka, haka ne".
Hujja daga kwarewar addini: Hujjar daga kwarewar addini hujja ce game da samuwar Allah. Yana riƙe cewa mafi kyawun bayani game da abubuwan addini shine cewa sun kasance ƙwarewa na gaske ko tsinkaye na gaskiyar allahntaka. An gabatar da dalilai daban-daban don karɓa da kuma yarda da wannan takaddama.
Farya ta Allah: Rashin allahntaka karya ce mara gaskiya wacce ta hada da jayayya don yanke hukunci bisa hujjar cewa ba abin tsammani bane don ba gaskiya bane.
Hujja daga zane mara kyau: Hujjar daga mummunan zane , wanda kuma aka fi sani da muhawarar dysteleological , hujja ce a kan zaton kasancewar Allah mahalicci, bisa ga dalilin cewa duk wani allah mai iko da iko ko kuma alloli ba zai halicci kwayoyin halitta ba tare da tsinkayen suboptimal zane-zane da ke faruwa a cikin yanayi.
Argumentum ad populum: A ka'idar mahawara, muhawara ce ta gardama wacce ta yanke hukunci cewa tilas ne ya zama gaskiya saboda mutane da yawa ko mutane da yawa sun gaskata shi, galibi a taƙaice a rufe cewa: "Idan da yawa sun yi imani da haka, haka ne".
Talauci na mai motsawa: Talaucin abin da ke kara kuzari ( POS ) ita ce hujja mai rikitarwa daga ilimin harshe cewa yara ba sa fuskantar wadatattun bayanai a cikin yankunansu na yare don samun kowane fasalin yarensu. Wannan ana ɗaukar sa a matsayin hujja wacce ta saba wa ra'ayin mai ra'ayin cewa ana koyon harshe ne kawai ta hanyar gogewa. Da'awar ita ce jumlolin da yara ke ji yayin da suke koyon yare ba su kunshi bayanan da ake bukata don bunkasa cikakkiyar fahimtar nahawun yare.
Ilimin nihilism: Nihilism na ɗabi'a ra'ayi ne na ɗabi'a wanda babu abin da ke daidai ko kuskure.
Hujja daga dalili: Hujja daga dalili hujja ce game da tsarin halitta na zahiri da wanzuwar Allah. Mafi shaharar mai kare hujja shine CS Lewis. Lewis ya fara kare muhawara tsawon lokaci a littafinsa na 1947, Mu'ujiza: Nazarin Farko . A bugu na biyu na al'ajibai (1960), Lewis ya sake dubawa kuma ya fadada batun.
Hujja daga kwarewar addini: Hujjar daga kwarewar addini hujja ce game da samuwar Allah. Yana riƙe cewa mafi kyawun bayani game da abubuwan addini shine cewa sun kasance ƙwarewa na gaske ko tsinkaye na gaskiyar allahntaka. An gabatar da dalilai daban-daban don karɓa da kuma yarda da wannan takaddama.
Ad tashin zuciya: Ad nauseam kalma ce ta Latin don jayayya ko wata tattaunawa da ta ci gaba har zuwa tashin zuciya. Misali, "wannan an tattauna ad nauseam " yana nuna cewa an tattauna batun sosai kuma waɗanda suke da hannu sun kamu da rashin lafiyarsa. Karya na jan tattaunawar zuwa wani yanayi na tashin hankali domin a tabbatar da matsayin mutum a matsayin daidai saboda ba a saba masa ba kuma ana kiranta hujja da rashin fahimta da kuma jayayya daga maimaitawa .
Hujja daga shiru: Yin hujja daga shiru shine bayyana ƙarshen ra'ayi wanda ya dogara da rashi maganganu a cikin takardun tarihi, maimakon kasancewar su. A fagen karatun gargajiya, galibi ana nufin maganar cewa marubuci bai san wani fanni ba, la'akari da rashin nassoshi a rubuce-rubucen marubucin.
Hujja daga ƙananan lamuran: Muhawara daga shari'o'in da suka rage daga baya wata hujja ce ta falsafa tsakanin ka'idar 'yancin dabbobi game da dabi'un dabbobin da ba mutane ba. Maganganun nata sun tabbatar da cewa idan jarirai mutane, da dattijai, da masu rauni, da nakasassu masu hankali suna da halin ɗabi'a kai tsaye, dabbobin da ba mutane ba dole ne su kasance suna da irin wannan matsayin, tunda babu wata sananniyar halayyar ɗabi'a da waɗancan mutane masu ƙananan keɓaɓɓu suke da dabbobi. rashin. "Matsayi na ɗabi'a" na iya nufin haƙƙin ba a kashe shi ko sanya shi shan wahala ba, ko kuma game da ƙa'idodin ɗabi'a da za a bi da su ta wata hanya.
Hujja daga ƙananan lamuran: Muhawara daga shari'o'in da suka rage daga baya wata hujja ce ta falsafa tsakanin ka'idar 'yancin dabbobi game da dabi'un dabbobin da ba mutane ba. Maganganun nata sun tabbatar da cewa idan jarirai mutane, da dattijai, da masu rauni, da nakasassu masu hankali suna da halin ɗabi'a kai tsaye, dabbobin da ba mutane ba dole ne su kasance suna da irin wannan matsayin, tunda babu wata sananniyar halayyar ɗabi'a da waɗancan mutane masu ƙananan keɓaɓɓu suke da dabbobi. rashin. "Matsayi na ɗabi'a" na iya nufin haƙƙin ba a kashe shi ko sanya shi shan wahala ba, ko kuma game da ƙa'idodin ɗabi'a da za a bi da su ta wata hanya.
Hujja daga hukuma: Hujja daga hukuma , wanda kuma ake kira roko zuwa hukuma , ko argumentum ad verecundiam , wani nau'i ne na muhawara wacce ake amfani da ra'ayin hukuma a kan wani fanni a matsayin hujja don tallafawa wata hujja. Wasu na ganin cewa ana amfani da shi a cikin tsari idan dukkan bangarorin tattaunawar sun yarda kan amincin hukuma a mahallin da aka bayar, wasu kuma suna ganin cewa a koda yaushe karya ce kawai a kawo hukuma kan batun da aka tattauna a matsayin babbar hanyar goyon bayan wata hujja.
Kira ga al'ada: Ira zuwa ga al'ada wata hujja ce wacce a ke ɗaukar takaddun daidai bisa ga dangantaka da al'adar da ta gabata ko ta yanzu. Rokon ya ɗauki nau'i na "wannan daidai ne saboda koyaushe muna yin hakan ta wannan hanyar."
Muhawara game da yanayin duniya: Hujjar sararin samaniya , a tiyoloji na ɗabi'a, hujja ce wacce take iƙirarin cewa wanzuwar Allah ana iya bayyana shi daga hujjoji game da sababi, bayani, canji, motsi, yanayi, dogaro, ko ƙima game da sararin samaniya ko wasu jimillar abubuwa. A cosmological shawara kuma iya, wani lokacin za kira a matsayin wani misãli daga duniya causation, an shaida daga farko dalili, ko da causal shawara. Kowace lokacin aiki, akwai bambance-bambancen asali guda biyu na muhawara, kowane ɗayan yana da mahimmancin rarrabewa masu mahimmanci: a cikin (mahimmancin) , da kuma a cikin fieri (zama) .
Hujja a madadin: Asali a cikin aikin lauya, bahasi a madadin shi ne dabarun da lauya ke gabatar da hujjoji masu yawa don nuna adawa ga abokin adawarsa, tare da burin nuna cewa ba tare da la'akari da fassara ba babu wata ma'ana da ta dace in ba mai neman ba. .
Dokar uku (rubuce): Dokar uku ita ce ƙa'idar rubutu wacce ke nuna cewa abubuwan abubuwa uku ko haruffa sun fi sauran lambobi barkwanci, gamsarwa, ko tasiri. Hakanan masu sauraren wannan nau'in rubutu zasu iya tuna bayanan da aka isar saboda kasancewar ƙungiyoyi uku suna haɗuwa da taƙaitawa da kari tare da samun ƙaramin adadin bayanai don ƙirƙirar tsari. Yana sanya marubucin ko mai magana ya zama mai ilimi yayin da yake mai sauƙi, wayo, kuma mai jan hankali.
Taswirar hujja: Taswirar mahawara ko zane zane shine wakilcin gani na tsarin mahawara. Taswirar mahawara galibi tana ƙunshe da mahimman abubuwan tattaunawar, bisa al'ada ana kiranta kammalawa da gabatarwa , wanda kuma ake kira sabani da dalilai . Hakanan taswirar gardama na iya nuna wajan gabatarwa, ƙin yarda, ƙararraki, sakewa, da kuma lafazi. Akwai hanyoyi daban-daban na taswirar jayayya amma galibi suna dacewa da aiki kuma suna wakiltar da'awar mutum ɗaya da alaƙar da ke tsakanin su.
Taswirar hujja: Taswirar mahawara ko zane zane shine wakilcin gani na tsarin mahawara. Taswirar mahawara galibi tana ƙunshe da mahimman abubuwan tattaunawar, bisa al'ada ana kiranta kammalawa da gabatarwa , wanda kuma ake kira sabani da dalilai . Hakanan taswirar gardama na iya nuna wajan gabatarwa, ƙin yarda, ƙararraki, sakewa, da kuma lafazi. Akwai hanyoyi daban-daban na taswirar jayayya amma galibi suna dacewa da aiki kuma suna wakiltar da'awar mutum ɗaya da alaƙar da ke tsakanin su.
Taswirar hujja: Taswirar mahawara ko zane zane shine wakilcin gani na tsarin mahawara. Taswirar mahawara galibi tana ƙunshe da mahimman abubuwan tattaunawar, bisa al'ada ana kiranta kammalawa da gabatarwa , wanda kuma ake kira sabani da dalilai . Hakanan taswirar gardama na iya nuna wajan gabatarwa, ƙin yarda, ƙararraki, sakewa, da kuma lafazi. Akwai hanyoyi daban-daban na taswirar jayayya amma galibi suna dacewa da aiki kuma suna wakiltar da'awar mutum ɗaya da alaƙar da ke tsakanin su.
Hujja ma'adinai: Neman mahawara , ko hakar ma'ana , yanki ne na bincike a cikin fagen sarrafa harsunan ƙasa. Manufar hakar ma'adinai ita ce hakarwa ta atomatik da kuma gano fasalin mahawara daga rubutun yaren halitta tare da taimakon shirye-shiryen kwamfuta. Ire-iren waɗannan maganganu masu jayayya sun haɗa da jumla, ƙarshe, makircin muhawara da alaƙar da ke tsakanin babba da ɓangare na biyu, ko kuma babba da rikice-rikice tsakanin maganganu. Jerin taron karawa juna sani game da ma'adanan mahawara shine babban dandalin bincike don binciken mahaɗan ma'adinai.
Dalilin latit: A cikin injiniyoyin sama, muhawara ta latitude sigar siga ce wacce ke bayyana matsayin jikin da ke motsi tare da Kepler orbit. Kusurwa ne tsakanin kumburi mai hauhawa da jiki.
Hujjar periapsis: Muhawara game da periapsis , wanda aka misalta shi da ω , ɗayan ɗayan abubuwan zagayawar jiki ne. A takaice, ω shine kusurwa daga hawan kumburin jiki zuwa ga mannenta, ana auna shi zuwa ga motsi.
Hujjar periapsis: Muhawara game da periapsis , wanda aka misalta shi da ω , ɗayan ɗayan abubuwan zagayawar jiki ne. A takaice, ω shine kusurwa daga hawan kumburin jiki zuwa ga mannenta, ana auna shi zuwa ga motsi.
Hujjar periapsis: Muhawara game da periapsis , wanda aka misalta shi da ω , ɗayan ɗayan abubuwan zagayawar jiki ne. A takaice, ω shine kusurwa daga hawan kumburin jiki zuwa ga mannenta, ana auna shi zuwa ga motsi.
Hujja (bincike mai rikitarwa): A lissafi, da hujja a hadaddun yawan z, denoted Arg (z), shi ne na kwana tsakanin m real axis da layin shiga cikin asalin kuma z, ya wakilta a matsayin batu a cikin hadaddun jirgin sama, da aka nuna a matsayin a cikin Hoto na 1. Aiki ne mai daraja mai yawa wanda ke aiki akan lambobin hadadden nonzero. Don ayyana aiki mai daraja ɗaya, ana amfani da ainihin darajar muhawara. Sau da yawa ana zaɓa don zama ƙimar mahimmanci na takaddar da ke tsakanin tazara (- π , π ] .
Hujjar aiki: A cikin ilimin lissafi, muhawara kan aiki ƙima ce da dole ne a samar don samun sakamakon aikin. Hakanan ana kiransa mai saurin canzawa.
Fungiyar karya: Associationarya ta ƙungiya ƙarya ce ta rashin ƙarfi game da saurin-gamawa ko nau'in jan abu da kuma abin da ke tabbatarwa, ta hanyar ƙungiyar da ba ta da mahimmanci kuma galibi ta hanyar kira ga motsin rai, cewa halayen abu ɗaya halaye ne na asali na wani. Nauyi biyu na rikice-rikice na tarayya wasu lokuta ana kiran su da laifi ta hanyar haɗuwa da girmamawa ta hanyar tarayya .
Matsalar mugunta: Matsalar mugunta ita ce tambayar ta yaya za a daidaita wanzuwar mugunta da wahala tare da Allah mai iko duka, mai cikakken iko, da kuma masani. Mafi kyawun gabatarwar matsalar an danganta ta ga masanin falsafar Girka Epicurus kuma mashahurin David Hume.
Dalilin latit: A cikin injiniyoyin sama, muhawara ta latitude sigar siga ce wacce ke bayyana matsayin jikin da ke motsi tare da Kepler orbit. Kusurwa ne tsakanin kumburi mai hauhawa da jiki.
Hujjar periapsis: Muhawara game da periapsis , wanda aka misalta shi da ω , ɗayan ɗayan abubuwan zagayawar jiki ne. A takaice, ω shine kusurwa daga hawan kumburin jiki zuwa ga mannenta, ana auna shi zuwa ga motsi.
Hujjar periapsis: Muhawara game da periapsis , wanda aka misalta shi da ω , ɗayan ɗayan abubuwan zagayawar jiki ne. A takaice, ω shine kusurwa daga hawan kumburin jiki zuwa ga mannenta, ana auna shi zuwa ga motsi.
Hujjar periapsis: Muhawara game da periapsis , wanda aka misalta shi da ω , ɗayan ɗayan abubuwan zagayawar jiki ne. A takaice, ω shine kusurwa daga hawan kumburin jiki zuwa ga mannenta, ana auna shi zuwa ga motsi.
Hujjar periapsis: Muhawara game da periapsis , wanda aka misalta shi da ω , ɗayan ɗayan abubuwan zagayawar jiki ne. A takaice, ω shine kusurwa daga hawan kumburin jiki zuwa ga mannenta, ana auna shi zuwa ga motsi.
Hujjar periapsis: Muhawara game da periapsis , wanda aka misalta shi da ω , ɗayan ɗayan abubuwan zagayawar jiki ne. A takaice, ω shine kusurwa daga hawan kumburin jiki zuwa ga mannenta, ana auna shi zuwa ga motsi.
Hujjar periapsis: Muhawara game da periapsis , wanda aka misalta shi da ω , ɗayan ɗayan abubuwan zagayawar jiki ne. A takaice, ω shine kusurwa daga hawan kumburin jiki zuwa ga mannenta, ana auna shi zuwa ga motsi.
Saduwa masu rikitarwa: Abubuwan da ke haifar da sihiri abu ne mai rikitarwa wanda ya samo asali daga ƙididdigar da ba ta dace ba. Kayan aiki na yau da kullun ya haɗa da tarin yashi, wanda aka cire hatsi daban-daban. A karkashin zato cewa cire hatsi daya baya juya tarin zuwa wani mara tsibi, sabanin ra'ayi shine a yi la'akari da abin da zai faru idan aka maimaita aikin sau da yawa: shin kwaya daya da ta rage har yanzu tana tsibiri? Idan ba haka ba, yaushe aka canza shi daga tarin zuwa wani wuri mara tsibi?
Arg max: A cikin ilimin lissafi, muhawara ta maxima sune maki, ko abubuwa, na yankin wani aiki wanda aka kara girman kimar aiki. A bambanci ga duniya Maxima, wanda yana nufin mafi girma jimloli na wani aiki, Arg max nufin da bayanai, ko muhawara, a da aiki jimloli ne kamar yadda manyan kamar yadda zai yiwu.
Arg max: A cikin ilimin lissafi, muhawara ta maxima sune maki, ko abubuwa, na yankin wani aiki wanda aka kara girman kimar aiki. A bambanci ga duniya Maxima, wanda yana nufin mafi girma jimloli na wani aiki, Arg max nufin da bayanai, ko muhawara, a da aiki jimloli ne kamar yadda manyan kamar yadda zai yiwu.
Hujjar periapsis: Muhawara game da periapsis , wanda aka misalta shi da ω , ɗayan ɗayan abubuwan zagayawar jiki ne. A takaice, ω shine kusurwa daga hawan kumburin jiki zuwa ga mannenta, ana auna shi zuwa ga motsi.
Hujjar periapsis: Muhawara game da periapsis , wanda aka misalta shi da ω , ɗayan ɗayan abubuwan zagayawar jiki ne. A takaice, ω shine kusurwa daga hawan kumburin jiki zuwa ga mannenta, ana auna shi zuwa ga motsi.
Hujja daga shiru: Yin hujja daga shiru shine bayyana ƙarshen ra'ayi wanda ya dogara da rashi maganganu a cikin takardun tarihi, maimakon kasancewar su. A fagen karatun gargajiya, galibi ana nufin maganar cewa marubuci bai san wani fanni ba, la'akari da rashin nassoshi a rubuce-rubucen marubucin.
Bayyanar da hujja game da layin umarni: Ana amfani da hanyoyin rarrabuwar mahawara daban-daban ta hanyar amfani da yarukan shirye-shirye daban-daban don yin bayani game da maganganun umarnin-umarni.
Hujja: A cikin hankali da falsafa, hujja jerin maganganu ne, wanda ake kira gabatarwa ko abubuwan da ake so, waɗanda aka yi niyya don tantance gaskiyar gaskiyar wani bayani, ƙarshe. Za'a iya wakiltar nau'ikan mahawara a cikin yaren halitta a cikin yaren alamomin alama, kuma da kanmu daga yaren halitta wanda aka tsara "muhawara" a hukumance ana iya yin sa cikin ilimin lissafi da kimiyyar kwamfuta.
Hujja: A cikin hankali da falsafa, hujja jerin maganganu ne, wanda ake kira gabatarwa ko abubuwan da ake so, waɗanda aka yi niyya don tantance gaskiyar gaskiyar wani bayani, ƙarshe. Za'a iya wakiltar nau'ikan mahawara a cikin yaren halitta a cikin yaren alamomin alama, kuma da kanmu daga yaren halitta wanda aka tsara "muhawara" a hukumance ana iya yin sa cikin ilimin lissafi da kimiyyar kwamfuta.
Dalilin mahawara: A cikin bincike mai rikitarwa, ƙa'idar muhawara tana danganta bambanci tsakanin adadin sifili da sandunan aikin meromorphic zuwa maƙallan maƙerin kayan aikin aikin.
Jayayya makirci: A ka'idar mahawara, tsarin muhawara ko makircin tsari samfuri ne wanda yake wakiltar nau'in gardama da aka saba amfani dashi a tattaunawar yau da kullun. Yawancin tsare-tsaren jayayya daban-daban an gano su. Kowane ɗayan yana da suna kuma yana gabatar da nau'in haɗi tsakanin gabatarwa da ƙarshe a cikin jayayya, kuma wannan haɗin yana bayyana azaman ƙa'idar aiki. Shirye-shiryen jayayya na iya haɗawa da maganganu bisa la'akari da nau'ikan dalilai na tunani-na jan hankali, na jan hankali, na hali, da dai sauransu.
Hanyar canjin hujja: A cikin ilimin lissafi, hanyar canza jayayya hanya ce ta gina ayyuka ba tare da izini ba dangane da Poisson-Lie brackets, waɗanda Mishchenko da Fomenko suka gabatar (1978). Sun yi amfani da shi don tabbatar da cewa alissar Poisson na ƙarancin fasali Lie algebra ya ƙunshi cikakken jigilar abubuwa masu yawa.
Hujja asibiti: " Argiment Clinic " wani zane ne daga Monty Python's Flying Circus , wanda John Cleese da Graham Chapman suka rubuta. An watsa hoton ne daga farko a matsayin wani bangare na jerin talabijin kuma daga baya kungiyar ta gabatar dashi kai tsaye. Ya dogara sosai da rubutun kalmomi da tattaunawa, kuma an yi amfani da shi azaman misalin yadda harshe yake aiki.
Tsarin hankali: A hankalce , sigar sanarwa mai ma'ana ita ce takamaiman takamaiman sigar fassarar wannan bayanin a cikin tsari na yau da kullun. Ba bisa ka'ida ba, tsari mai ma'ana yana kokarin tsara wata sanarwa mai yuwuwa cikin sanarwa tare da madaidaiciya, fassarar ma'ana mara ma'ana dangane da tsari na yau da kullun. A cikin ingantaccen harshe na yau da kullun, ma'anar tsari mai ma'ana za a iya ƙayyade shi ba tare da ɓata lokaci ba daga daidaituwa kawai. Siffofin dabaru masu ma'ana ne, ba ginawa ba; saboda haka, za'a iya samun sama da layi ɗaya wanda yake wakiltar tsari iri ɗaya a cikin harshe da aka bayar.
Fasaha hujja: Fasahar jayayya yanki ne na ilimin kere kere wanda ke maida hankali kan amfani da dabarun lissafi ga halitta, ganowa, bincike, kewayawa, kimantawa da ganin mahawara da muhawara. Lantarki ta Artificial A cikin 1980s da 1990s, ra'ayoyin falsafa na muhawara sun kasance masu karfin iko don magance mahimman ƙalubalen lissafi, kamar ƙirar samfurin ƙarancin ra'ayi da rashi fahimta da tsara ƙa'idodin daidaito na tsari don tsarin wakilai da yawa. A lokaci guda, an gabatar da hanyoyin sarrafa lissafi na tsarin Hujja a matsayin wata hanya ta samar da lissafin adawa ga kirga abin da ya dace a yi imani da mahallin mahawara masu karo da juna.
Fasaha hujja: Fasahar jayayya yanki ne na ilimin kere kere wanda ke maida hankali kan amfani da dabarun lissafi ga halitta, ganowa, bincike, kewayawa, kimantawa da ganin mahawara da muhawara. Lantarki ta Artificial A cikin 1980s da 1990s, ra'ayoyin falsafa na muhawara sun kasance masu karfin iko don magance mahimman ƙalubalen lissafi, kamar ƙirar samfurin ƙarancin ra'ayi da rashi fahimta da tsara ƙa'idodin daidaito na tsari don tsarin wakilai da yawa. A lokaci guda, an gabatar da hanyoyin sarrafa lissafi na tsarin Hujja a matsayin wata hanya ta samar da lissafin adawa ga kirga abin da ya dace a yi imani da mahallin mahawara masu karo da juna.
Rage adio Hitlerum: Reductio ad Hitlerum , wanda aka fi sani da wasan katin Nazi , ƙoƙari ne na ɓata matsayin wani bisa la'akari da ra'ayi iri ɗaya da Adolf Hitler ko jam'iyyar Nazi suka yi. Misali guda daya shine tunda Hitler yana adawa da shan sigari, wannan yana nuna cewa wanda bayason shan sigari dan Nazi ne.
Hujja kan Kawar da Kiristanci: Hujja don Tabbatar da cewa Rushe Kiristanci a Ingila Mayu, kamar yadda Abubuwa suke Yanzu A Yau, Kasance Tare da Wasu Rashin Jin Dadi, kuma Wataƙila Ba su Thoseauki Waɗannan Ingantattun Tasirin da Aka Gabatar da su ba , wanda aka fi sani da suna Hujja kan Rage Kiristanci , rubutu ne na ban dariya. ta Jonathan Swift da ke kare Kiristanci, kuma musamman, Anglicanism, game da cin zarafin zamani daga abokan hamayyarsa daban-daban, da suka hada da masu sassaucin ra'ayi, masu yada zango, masu kin addini, wadanda ba su yarda da Allah ba, Sociniyanci, da sauran wadanda ake kira "Masu rarrabuwar kawuna." An rubuta rubutun a shekara ta 1708 kuma, kamar yadda aka saba a lokacin, an rarraba shi sosai a matsayin ƙasida. Takaddun sanannun sanannen labarin ne, mai cike da launuka iri-iri, kuma ana ɗaukar shi a matsayin babban misali na raunin siyasa.
Hujja daga hukuma: Hujja daga hukuma , wanda kuma ake kira roko zuwa hukuma , ko argumentum ad verecundiam , wani nau'i ne na muhawara wacce ake amfani da ra'ayin hukuma a kan wani fanni a matsayin hujja don tallafawa wata hujja. Wasu na ganin cewa ana amfani da shi a cikin tsari idan dukkan bangarorin tattaunawar sun yarda kan amincin hukuma a mahallin da aka bayar, wasu kuma suna ganin cewa a koda yaushe karya ce kawai a kawo hukuma kan batun da aka tattauna a matsayin babbar hanyar goyon bayan wata hujja.
Peira don motsawa: Roko zuwa ga motsin rai ko kuma muhawara gamsassun maganganu karya ce ta yau da kullun wacce ta shafi magudin motsin mai karba don cin nasarar jayayya, musamman in babu hujja ta gaskiya. Irin wannan roko zuwa ga motsin rai wani nau'in jan aiki ne kuma ya ƙunshi yaudara da dama, wanda ya haɗa da roko ga sakamako, roko ga tsoro, roƙo ga fadanci, roƙo zuwa ga tausayi, roƙo ga izgili, roƙo don ƙeta, da kuma burin buri.
Peira don tsoro: Rokon tsoro shine rudani wanda mutum yayi yunƙurin ƙirƙirar goyon baya ga ra'ayin ta hanyar yunƙurin ƙara tsoro game da wata hanyar. Kira ga tsoro ya zama gama gari a harkar kasuwanci da siyasa.
Hujja daga faɗuwa: Hujja daga rashin gaskiya ita ce rashin gaskiyar bincikar hujja da nuna cewa, tunda tana dauke da karya, to karshenta dole ya zama karya. Haka kuma an kira shaida wa dabaru, da shirme kawai shirme kawai, da fallacist ta shirme kawai, kuma bad dalilai Shaci.
Hujja zuwa matsakaici: Hujja zuwa matsakaici- wanda aka fi sani da sassaucin ƙarya , jayayya daga tsakiyar ƙasa , da ma'anar zinare na ƙarya - ita ce faɗar cewa gaskiyar ita ce daidaitawa tsakanin matsayi biyu masu adawa.
Ira don jinƙai: Roko zuwa ga tausayi wani abu ne na rashin hankali wanda wani ya yi ƙoƙari ya sami goyon baya don wata hujja ko ra'ayi ta hanyar amfani da jinƙan abokin hamayyarsa na tausayi ko laifi. Yana da takamaiman nau'in roko don motsawa. Sunan "gardin Galileo" yana nufin wahalar masanin sakamakon kamun gidansa da Inquisition yayi.
Hujja daga hukuma: Hujja daga hukuma , wanda kuma ake kira roko zuwa hukuma , ko argumentum ad verecundiam , wani nau'i ne na muhawara wacce ake amfani da ra'ayin hukuma a kan wani fanni a matsayin hujja don tallafawa wata hujja. Wasu na ganin cewa ana amfani da shi a cikin tsari idan dukkan bangarorin tattaunawar sun yarda kan amincin hukuma a mahallin da aka bayar, wasu kuma suna ganin cewa a koda yaushe karya ce kawai a kawo hukuma kan batun da aka tattauna a matsayin babbar hanyar goyon bayan wata hujja.
Apira don ba'a: Roko zuwa izgili rashin gaskiya ne wanda ya gabatar da hujjar abokin adawa a matsayin wauta, abin dariya, ko abin dariya, saboda haka bai cancanci a yi la'akari da shi ba.
Dalilin tunani: Tunani mai rikitarwa wani nau'i ne na tunani mai ma'ana wanda aka tsara kuma ya inganta daga masanin falsafar Ba'amurke Charles Sanders Peirce ya fara a farkon sulusin ƙarni na 19. Ana farawa tare da lura ko saitin abubuwan lura sannan sannan neman mafi sauƙi kuma mai yiwuwa ƙarshe daga abubuwan lura. Wannan tsari, sabanin tunanin cire hankali, yana haifar da sakamako mai ma'ana amma baya tabbatar dashi. Concaƙasasshen magana ta haka ne ya cancanci kasancewa yana da ragowar rashin tabbas ko shakku, wanda aka bayyana a cikin kalmomin ja baya kamar "mafi kyawun samuwa" ko "mai yuwuwa". Mutum na iya fahimtar dalilin satar abubuwa kamar yadda yake nuna kyakkyawar bayani , kodayake ba duk amfani da kalmomin sacewa da nuna kyakkyawan bayanin daidai suke ba.
Ad hominem: Ad hominem , a takaice don muhawara ad hominem , yana nufin nau'ikan muhawara da yawa, wasu amma ba dukkansu wauta bane. Galibi wannan kalmar tana nufin dabarun yin magana inda mai magana ke faɗar halaye, muradi, ko kuma wasu halaye na mutumin da yake yin hujja maimakon ya kai hari ga asalin batun kansa. Wannan yana guje wa muhawara ta gaske ta hanyar ƙirƙirar karkatarwa ga wasu abubuwan da ba su da mahimmanci amma galibi ana cajin su sosai. Mafi yawan nau'ikan wannan karyar ita ce "A yayi da'awar x , B yana tabbatar da cewa A yana da dukiyar da ba'a so, saboda haka B ya kammala da cewa hujja x bata dace ba".
Ad hominem: Ad hominem , a takaice don muhawara ad hominem , yana nufin nau'ikan muhawara da yawa, wasu amma ba dukkansu wauta bane. Galibi wannan kalmar tana nufin dabarun yin magana inda mai magana ke faɗar halaye, muradi, ko kuma wasu halaye na mutumin da yake yin hujja maimakon ya kai hari ga asalin batun kansa. Wannan yana guje wa muhawara ta gaske ta hanyar ƙirƙirar karkatarwa ga wasu abubuwan da ba su da mahimmanci amma galibi ana cajin su sosai. Mafi yawan nau'ikan wannan karyar ita ce "A yayi da'awar x , B yana tabbatar da cewa A yana da dukiyar da ba'a so, saboda haka B ya kammala da cewa hujja x bata dace ba".
Kira ga al'ada: Ira zuwa ga al'ada wata hujja ce wacce a ke ɗaukar takaddun daidai bisa ga dangantaka da al'adar da ta gabata ko ta yanzu. Rokon ya ɗauki nau'i na "wannan daidai ne saboda koyaushe muna yin hakan ta wannan hanyar."
Dalilin mahawara: A cikin bincike mai rikitarwa, ƙa'idar muhawara tana danganta bambanci tsakanin adadin sifili da sandunan aikin meromorphic zuwa maƙallan maƙerin kayan aikin aikin.
Hujjar Yanar gizo: Gidan yanar sadarwar hujja babban gidan yanar gizo ne na mahaɗan mahaɗa wanda mutane suka kirkira yayin da suke bayyana ra'ayinsu da kuma mu'amala da ra'ayoyin wasu. Shafin yanar gizo na Jayayya yana nufin yin muhawara ta kan layi ilham ga mahalarta kamar masu shiga tsakani, ɗalibai, malamai, masu watsa labarai da masu rubutun ra'ayin yanar gizo, don ƙirƙirar kayan aikin Gidan yanar gizo wanda zai ba da damar adanawa, dawo da atomatik da nazarin bayanan mahawara da aka haɗa, da haɓaka ingancin layi muhawara da muhawara Za'a iya bayyana Gidan Bayani a matsayin yanki na babban gidan yanar gizo na Semantic.
Ad hominem: Ad hominem , a takaice don muhawara ad hominem , yana nufin nau'ikan muhawara da yawa, wasu amma ba dukkansu wauta bane. Galibi wannan kalmar tana nufin dabarun yin magana inda mai magana ke faɗar halaye, muradi, ko kuma wasu halaye na mutumin da yake yin hujja maimakon ya kai hari ga asalin batun kansa. Wannan yana guje wa muhawara ta gaske ta hanyar ƙirƙirar karkatarwa ga wasu abubuwan da ba su da mahimmanci amma galibi ana cajin su sosai. Mafi yawan nau'ikan wannan karyar ita ce "A yayi da'awar x , B yana tabbatar da cewa A yana da dukiyar da ba'a so, saboda haka B ya kammala da cewa hujja x bata dace ba".
Ad hominem: Ad hominem , a takaice don muhawara ad hominem , yana nufin nau'ikan muhawara da yawa, wasu amma ba dukkansu wauta bane. Galibi wannan kalmar tana nufin dabarun yin magana inda mai magana ke faɗar halaye, muradi, ko kuma wasu halaye na mutumin da yake yin hujja maimakon ya kai hari ga asalin batun kansa. Wannan yana guje wa muhawara ta gaske ta hanyar ƙirƙirar karkatarwa ga wasu abubuwan da ba su da mahimmanci amma galibi ana cajin su sosai. Mafi yawan nau'ikan wannan karyar ita ce "A yayi da'awar x , B yana tabbatar da cewa A yana da dukiyar da ba'a so, saboda haka B ya kammala da cewa hujja x bata dace ba".
Ad hominem: Ad hominem , a takaice don muhawara ad hominem , yana nufin nau'ikan muhawara da yawa, wasu amma ba dukkansu wauta bane. Galibi wannan kalmar tana nufin dabarun yin magana inda mai magana ke faɗar halaye, muradi, ko kuma wasu halaye na mutumin da yake yin hujja maimakon ya kai hari ga asalin batun kansa. Wannan yana guje wa muhawara ta gaske ta hanyar ƙirƙirar karkatarwa ga wasu abubuwan da ba su da mahimmanci amma galibi ana cajin su sosai. Mafi yawan nau'ikan wannan karyar ita ce "A yayi da'awar x , B yana tabbatar da cewa A yana da dukiyar da ba'a so, saboda haka B ya kammala da cewa hujja x bata dace ba".
Hujja: Argumental wasa ne na Ingilishi wanda aka inganta shi wanda John Sergeant ya shirya kuma daga baya Sean Lock, tare da ƙungiyoyi biyu waɗanda Marcus Brigstocke da Rufus Hound ke jagoranta, sannan Robert Webb da Seann Walsh suna biye dashi, suna mahawara da jayayya akan batutuwa daban-daban tare da taimako daga baƙi daban-daban. Kamfanin samar da kayayyaki mai zaman kansa ne Tiger Aspect Productions na Dave ke yin sa kuma ya fara gabatar da shi ne a ranar 27 ga Oktoba 2008. An ba da izini na uku ga Dave kuma an gabatar da kaso huɗu daga jerin na biyu da aka watsa a BBC Two, wanda hakan ya sa ta zama UKTV mafi nasarar hukuma ta fuskar isa ga masu sauraro.
Jerin maganganun jayayya Argumental wani wasan kwaikwayo ne na wasan kwaikwayo na wasan kwaikwayo na Dave wanda aka fara watsa shi tsakanin 2008 da 2011. Ricky Kelehar ne ya kirkireshi, kuma John Sergeant ne ya dauki nauyin shi har zuwa karshen Series 3 bayan haka Sean Lock ya dauki nauyin na hudu. A cikin kowane bangare ƙungiyoyi biyu na bangarori biyu, ƙungiyar shuɗi da ƙungiyar ja, sun yi muhawara da jayayya a kan batutuwa daban-daban, tare da masu sauraren studio suna zaɓar wanda suke tsammanin ya gabatar da mafi kyawun shari'ar. A jerin farko na farko shudi ya jagoranci kyaftin din Rufus Hound yayin da kungiyar ja ta samu kyaftin din Marcus Brigstocke, a jerin na hudu kuma shugabannin sun hada da Robert Webb (shudi) da Seann Walsh (ja).
Ka'idar mahawara: Ka'idar mahawara , ko muhawara , ita ce nazarin tsaka-tsakin yadda za a cimma matsaya ta hanyar tunani mai ma'ana; ma'ana, da'awar bisa, lafiyayye ko a'a, a harabar gidan. Ya haɗa da zane-zane da ilimin kimiyya na muhawarar jama'a, tattaunawa, tattaunawa, da rarrashi. Tana nazarin ka'idodi na tunani, dabaru, da ka'idoji a cikin tsarin duniya da wucin gadi.
Hujja da Ba da Shawara: Jayayya da Ba da Shawara ita ce mujallar ilimi da ake dubawa kwata-kwata wacce Taylor & Francis suka buga, wanda Bet Innocenti na Jami'ar Kansas ya shirya. Katherine Langford, Harry Weger, Catherine H. Palczewski, da John Fritch ne suka shirya jaridar a baya.
Hujja da Muhawara: Muhawara da Muhawara jerin littattafai ne na ilmantarwa da suka daɗe game da muhawara da Macmillan ya buga daga 1904 zuwa 1969. Craven Laycock da Robert Leighton Scales ne suka rubuta littattafan farko, dukkansu suna da alaƙa da Kwalejin Dartmouth. Sun sadaukar da littafin ga abokin aiki Charles Francis Richardson. A cikin 1917, marubucin ya ba James Milton O'Neill na Jami'ar Wisconsin wanda ya sake rubuta littafin, yana jin cewa yayin da "asalin rubutu yana ƙunshe da bayyananniya kuma mafi ma'ana game da batun da aka taɓa bugawa", "bai isa sosai ga kwaleji ba da karatun jami'a. " O'Neill ya kara tattaunawa game da batutuwa masu alaƙa daga hankali, doka, da maganganu yayin riƙe gabatarwa, sadaukarwa, tsari, da wasu yare daga asalin bugun da Laycock da Scales suka rubuta.
Hujja da Muhawara: Muhawara da Muhawara jerin littattafai ne na ilmantarwa da suka daɗe game da muhawara da Macmillan ya buga daga 1904 zuwa 1969. Craven Laycock da Robert Leighton Scales ne suka rubuta littattafan farko, dukkansu suna da alaƙa da Kwalejin Dartmouth. Sun sadaukar da littafin ga abokin aiki Charles Francis Richardson. A cikin 1917, marubucin ya ba James Milton O'Neill na Jami'ar Wisconsin wanda ya sake rubuta littafin, yana jin cewa yayin da "asalin rubutu yana ƙunshe da bayyananniya kuma mafi ma'ana game da batun da aka taɓa bugawa", "bai isa sosai ga kwaleji ba da karatun jami'a. " O'Neill ya kara tattaunawa game da batutuwa masu alaƙa daga hankali, doka, da maganganu yayin riƙe gabatarwa, sadaukarwa, tsari, da wasu yare daga asalin bugun da Laycock da Scales suka rubuta.
Hujja da Ba da Shawara: Jayayya da Ba da Shawara ita ce mujallar ilimi da ake dubawa kwata-kwata wacce Taylor & Francis suka buga, wanda Bet Innocenti na Jami'ar Kansas ya shirya. Katherine Langford, Harry Weger, Catherine H. Palczewski, da John Fritch ne suka shirya jaridar a baya.
Ethabi'ar Hujja: Etha'idar jayayya hujja ce da ake gabatarwa game da ɗabi'ar masu zaman kansu masu cin gashin kansu waɗanda Hans-Hermann Hoppe ya kirkira a 1988, Farfesa Emeritus tare da Jami'ar Nevada, Kwalejin Kasuwanci ta Las Vegas da Ludwig von Mises Babbar Babbar Cibiyar.
Ka'idar mahawara: Ka'idar mahawara , ko muhawara , ita ce nazarin tsaka-tsakin yadda za a cimma matsaya ta hanyar tunani mai ma'ana; ma'ana, da'awar bisa, lafiyayye ko a'a, a harabar gidan. Ya haɗa da zane-zane da ilimin kimiyya na muhawarar jama'a, tattaunawa, tattaunawa, da rarrashi. Tana nazarin ka'idodi na tunani, dabaru, da ka'idoji a cikin tsarin duniya da wucin gadi.
Hujja da Ba da Shawara: Jayayya da Ba da Shawara ita ce mujallar ilimi da ake dubawa kwata-kwata wacce Taylor & Francis suka buga, wanda Bet Innocenti na Jami'ar Kansas ya shirya. Katherine Langford, Harry Weger, Catherine H. Palczewski, da John Fritch ne suka shirya jaridar a baya.
Hujja da Muhawara: Muhawara da Muhawara jerin littattafai ne na ilmantarwa da suka daɗe game da muhawara da Macmillan ya buga daga 1904 zuwa 1969. Craven Laycock da Robert Leighton Scales ne suka rubuta littattafan farko, dukkansu suna da alaƙa da Kwalejin Dartmouth. Sun sadaukar da littafin ga abokin aiki Charles Francis Richardson. A cikin 1917, marubucin ya ba James Milton O'Neill na Jami'ar Wisconsin wanda ya sake rubuta littafin, yana jin cewa yayin da "asalin rubutu yana ƙunshe da bayyananniya kuma mafi ma'ana game da batun da aka taɓa bugawa", "bai isa sosai ga kwaleji ba da karatun jami'a. " O'Neill ya kara tattaunawa game da batutuwa masu alaƙa daga hankali, doka, da maganganu yayin riƙe gabatarwa, sadaukarwa, tsari, da wasu yare daga asalin bugun da Laycock da Scales suka rubuta.
Hujja da Muhawara: Muhawara da Muhawara jerin littattafai ne na ilmantarwa da suka daɗe game da muhawara da Macmillan ya buga daga 1904 zuwa 1969. Craven Laycock da Robert Leighton Scales ne suka rubuta littattafan farko, dukkansu suna da alaƙa da Kwalejin Dartmouth. Sun sadaukar da littafin ga abokin aiki Charles Francis Richardson. A cikin 1917, marubucin ya ba James Milton O'Neill na Jami'ar Wisconsin wanda ya sake rubuta littafin, yana jin cewa yayin da "asalin rubutu yana ƙunshe da bayyananniya kuma mafi ma'ana game da batun da aka taɓa bugawa", "bai isa sosai ga kwaleji ba da karatun jami'a. " O'Neill ya kara tattaunawa game da batutuwa masu alaƙa daga hankali, doka, da maganganu yayin riƙe gabatarwa, sadaukarwa, tsari, da wasu yare daga asalin bugun da Laycock da Scales suka rubuta.
Ethabi'ar Hujja: Etha'idar jayayya hujja ce da ake gabatarwa game da ɗabi'ar masu zaman kansu masu cin gashin kansu waɗanda Hans-Hermann Hoppe ya kirkira a 1988, Farfesa Emeritus tare da Jami'ar Nevada, Kwalejin Kasuwanci ta Las Vegas da Ludwig von Mises Babbar Babbar Cibiyar.
Tsarin muhawara: A cikin ilimin kere kere da kuma wasu fannoni masu alaƙa, tsarin muhawara hanya ce ta ma'amala da saɓani da kuma yanke hukunci daga gareshi ta hanyar amfani da hujjojin da aka tsara.
Tsarin muhawara: A cikin ilimin kere kere da kuma wasu fannoni masu alaƙa, tsarin muhawara hanya ce ta ma'amala da saɓani da kuma yanke hukunci daga gareshi ta hanyar amfani da hujjojin da aka tsara.
Jayayya makirci: A ka'idar mahawara, tsarin muhawara ko makircin tsari samfuri ne wanda yake wakiltar nau'in gardama da aka saba amfani dashi a tattaunawar yau da kullun. Yawancin tsare-tsaren jayayya daban-daban an gano su. Kowane ɗayan yana da suna kuma yana gabatar da nau'in haɗi tsakanin gabatarwa da ƙarshe a cikin jayayya, kuma wannan haɗin yana bayyana azaman ƙa'idar aiki. Shirye-shiryen jayayya na iya haɗawa da maganganu bisa la'akari da nau'ikan dalilai na tunani-na jan hankali, na jan hankali, na hali, da dai sauransu.
Fasaha hujja: Fasahar jayayya yanki ne na ilimin kere kere wanda ke maida hankali kan amfani da dabarun lissafi ga halitta, ganowa, bincike, kewayawa, kimantawa da ganin mahawara da muhawara. Lantarki ta Artificial A cikin 1980s da 1990s, ra'ayoyin falsafa na muhawara sun kasance masu karfin iko don magance mahimman ƙalubalen lissafi, kamar ƙirar samfurin ƙarancin ra'ayi da rashi fahimta da tsara ƙa'idodin daidaito na tsari don tsarin wakilai da yawa. A lokaci guda, an gabatar da hanyoyin sarrafa lissafi na tsarin Hujja a matsayin wata hanya ta samar da lissafin adawa ga kirga abin da ya dace a yi imani da mahallin mahawara masu karo da juna.
Fasaha hujja: Fasahar jayayya yanki ne na ilimin kere kere wanda ke maida hankali kan amfani da dabarun lissafi ga halitta, ganowa, bincike, kewayawa, kimantawa da ganin mahawara da muhawara. Lantarki ta Artificial A cikin 1980s da 1990s, ra'ayoyin falsafa na muhawara sun kasance masu karfin iko don magance mahimman ƙalubalen lissafi, kamar ƙirar samfurin ƙarancin ra'ayi da rashi fahimta da tsara ƙa'idodin daidaito na tsari don tsarin wakilai da yawa. A lokaci guda, an gabatar da hanyoyin sarrafa lissafi na tsarin Hujja a matsayin wata hanya ta samar da lissafin adawa ga kirga abin da ya dace a yi imani da mahallin mahawara masu karo da juna.
Ka'idar mahawara: Ka'idar mahawara , ko muhawara , ita ce nazarin tsaka-tsakin yadda za a cimma matsaya ta hanyar tunani mai ma'ana; ma'ana, da'awar bisa, lafiyayye ko a'a, a harabar gidan. Ya haɗa da zane-zane da ilimin kimiyya na muhawarar jama'a, tattaunawa, tattaunawa, da rarrashi. Tana nazarin ka'idodi na tunani, dabaru, da ka'idoji a cikin tsarin duniya da wucin gadi.
Hujja: A tsarin shari'ar Amurka, jayayya ita ce hujja ta kin yarda da hujja wacce aka gabatar don amsa tambayar da ta sa mai ba da shaida ya ja hankali daga gaskiyar lamarin.
Ka'idar mahawara: Ka'idar mahawara , ko muhawara , ita ce nazarin tsaka-tsakin yadda za a cimma matsaya ta hanyar tunani mai ma'ana; ma'ana, da'awar bisa, lafiyayye ko a'a, a harabar gidan. Ya haɗa da zane-zane da ilimin kimiyya na muhawarar jama'a, tattaunawa, tattaunawa, da rarrashi. Tana nazarin ka'idodi na tunani, dabaru, da ka'idoji a cikin tsarin duniya da wucin gadi.
Labari: Wani rubutu shine, gabaɗaya, wani yanki ne na rubutu wanda yake ba da hujja ga marubucin, amma ma'anar ba ta da ma'ana, tana tattare da ta wasiƙa, takarda, labarin, ƙaramar takarda, da gajeren labari. Aysididdigar al'adun gargajiya an tsara su ta al'ada kamar yadda aka saba da na yau da kullun. Takaddun labarai na yau da kullun suna da "ma'ana mai mahimmanci, mutunci, tsari mai ma'ana, tsayi," yayin da yake ba da labari na yau da kullun da "yanayin mutum, abin dariya, salo mai kyau, tsarin rambling, rashin daidaituwa ko sabon abu na taken," da dai sauransu
Jayayya makirci: A ka'idar mahawara, tsarin muhawara ko makircin tsari samfuri ne wanda yake wakiltar nau'in gardama da aka saba amfani dashi a tattaunawar yau da kullun. Yawancin tsare-tsaren jayayya daban-daban an gano su. Kowane ɗayan yana da suna kuma yana gabatar da nau'in haɗi tsakanin gabatarwa da ƙarshe a cikin jayayya, kuma wannan haɗin yana bayyana azaman ƙa'idar aiki. Shirye-shiryen jayayya na iya haɗawa da maganganu bisa la'akari da nau'ikan dalilai na tunani-na jan hankali, na jan hankali, na hali, da dai sauransu.
Juya hujja: " Juyin juya hali" yana nufin rukuni na hanyoyi daban-daban wajen nazarin manufofi da tsare-tsare wadanda suke karfafa mahimmancin jayayya, yare da tattaunawa a cikin tsara manufofi. Byarfafawa ta hanyar "juyawar harshe" a fagen ɗabi'un ɗan adam, an ɓullo da shi azaman madadin iyakokin ilimin ƙira na nazarin ƙirar manufofin "neo-positivist" da mahimmin fahimtar fasaharsa game da tsarin yanke shawara. Hanyar jayayya ta hanyar tsari tana haɗa cikakkun tambayoyin yau da kullun cikin tsarin ƙa'idar da ke dacewa da nazarin shawarwarin siyasa. Yana da mahimmanci game da yanayin yanayi da nau'ikan ayyukan ilmi da ke tattare da kowane mataki na aiwatar da manufofin, yana mai da hankali ga nau'o'in jayayya, rarrashi da gaskatawa.